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Cadmiuim Telluride
www.CadmiumTelluride.net

Cadmium Telluride:
CdTe - Ingredients for a A Highly Toxic & Deadly Solar Panel?!?

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Cadmiuim Telluride
www.CadmiumTelluride.net

Cadmium Telluride:  Highly Toxic and Deadly Ingredients Now Found in Solar Panels?!? 

by A. Blazev

What Is Cadmium Telluride, and Why Do We Use It?

Cadmium is one of the top 6 deadliest and toxic materials known.

Cadmium is a metallic element that is naturally present in the water and soil. A by-product of zinc, lead, and copper mining, cadmium is frequently used because it has highly desirable chemical and physical properties, including a resistance to corrosion and chemicals, a tolerance for high temperatures, a low melting point, and excellent electrical conduction. Tellurium, a semi-metallic element, is combined with cadmium to produce the compound cadmium telluride, or CdTe.

CdTe is a technology of choice for use in thin-film photovoltaic modules because its physical characteristics make it an ideal material for the production of solar cells. CdTe has an almost perfect bandgap for solar energy conversion and can be made well by a variety of low-cost methods. Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) predict that small-area CdTe cells may reach about 19% efficiency in the next five to ten years, and modules will be available at a low cost to consumers. This cost reduction would provide a pathway for PV to become an important part of the world's electricity supply.

Although CdTe has tremendous value in commercial PV applications, some have concerns about health risks associated with its improper use in manufacturing and residential applications. Others share concerns about its safe disposal at the end of the PV module's useful life. However, the very real environmental and health benefits of using CdTe to make solar electricity must be carefully weighed against the perceived risks.

The above information from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory website

The RoHS Directive

Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive

The Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment 2002/95/EC ( listen (help·info); commonly referred to as the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive or RoHS) was adopted in February 2003 by the European Union.[1] The RoHS directive took effect on 1 July 2006, and is required to be enforced and become law in each member state. This directive restricts the use of six hazardous materials in the manufacture of various types of electronic and electrical equipment. It is closely linked with the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) 2002/96/EC which sets collection, recycling and recovery targets for electrical goods and is part of a legislative initiative to solve the problem of huge amounts of toxic e-waste.

Cadmium Behavior in Thin Film CdTe PV Modules During Long Term Operation in Large Scale PV Fields on US Deserts

I.  Summary.  Several US and foreign manufacturers have started mass production of CdTe (Cadmium Telluride) based thin film PV modules, and are planning to install millions of these untested and unproven for this use PV modules on US desert lands.

While using small number of these modules on a house rooftop, or a small commercial site, does not pose any significant problem for a number of reasons, we foresee serious problems when installing and operating CdTe PV modules in large scale solar power fields, destined to operate 25-30 years non-stop on US desert lands. 

II.  Residential and Small Scale Commercial Installations.

Due to the fairly small amount of Cadmium in each CdTe module (avg. 7-9 g / m²), it is unlikely for a small number of these modules to cause any environmental or health related issues under normal operation, regardless of the operating conditions. 

Avoiding direct contact with damaged modules, and staying away from fires involving CdTe modules would be enough to eliminate any danger of environmental contamination or human health during the normal life of the modules.  Proper disposal of these at end of useful life (as toxic hazmat materials) is a must, if we are to protect the environment from unknown and potentially damaging consequences.

III.  Large and Very Large Scale CdTe PV commercial Installations.

The situation is totally different, however, when we talk about

1.) Large and very large scale installations in the 10-50-100-500MWp size,

2.) Operating non-stop for long time (25-30 years), and

3.) Operating in the middle of the desert under harshest of desert conditions. 

Things change drastically in this case, as follow:

1. The behavior of CdTe thin films under harsh, shade-less desert conditions is not well understood and no reliable scientific tests on the matter exist presently.  Nevertheless, we know well that very cold nights, followed by very high daily temperature excursions (over 100F range) play a significant role in the thin films behavior and will affect their structural and chemical stability with time. 

Thin films of any kind (including CdTe and CdS) tend to shrink when exposed to cold and expand significantly when heated.  After hundreds and thousands of these temperature cycles, accompanied by distortion of the films and friction between them, thin films tend to fatigue and show signs of mechanical deterioration and disintegration (expressed as cracks, pits, particles generation, and delamination from the substrate and from each other). 

The interface between the thin films and the surrounding layers is weakened and even destroyed with time, and the films lose their monolithic structure.  All these abnormalities lead to loss of power with time and facilitate chemical reactions, if and when outside elements enter the structure.

2. CdTe modules are frame-less glass panes, held together by a polymer layer, which is not enough protection from the elements, because it will decompose too, thus failing to stop the entry of reactive gases to, and release of potentially deadly gasses from, the Cadmium compounds in the modules as time goes by.

3. During the long term exposure to the harsh desert elements (avg. 25-30 years), moisture and gasses will penetrate into the module and react with the CdTe and CdS films, forming different Cadmium compounds, which are less stable and which might tend to outgas at high and uncontrollable rates.

4. The immense land area, covered with these CdTe modules undergoing serious mechanical and chemical changes through the years, might become saturated with Cadmium vapors, thus destroying the environment and life in and around these huge fields.  Uncontrolled wind currents might carry the deadly vapors to populated areas and cause an even deadlier disaster.         

5. A natural disaster might break or burn the modules, which, upon contact with the ground, will contaminate air, soil and water in and around the affected areas.

6. An extensive decommissioning, hazmat transport and recycling effort is needed at the end of life of the CdTe modules, in order to prevent additional contamination and / or damage to the environment or life.

IV.  Brief Summary of Issues:

1.     Cadmium is the 6^th most dangerous, toxic carcinogenic heavy metal on Earth.

2.     CdTe PV modules are a fairly new product, untested for long term desert operation and have no proven track record for such application.

3.     Regulations covering Cadmium and its compounds are in force in some countries, but in the US Cadmium use is totally unregulated presently.

4.     Tests done to date with small test pieces do NOT address the issues at hand: i.e., large scale operation for 25-30 years in the high deserts of CA or AZ.   

5.     CdTe and CdS thin films cannot remain monolithic and stable for 25-30 years of non-stop operation under the large temperature variations in the desert.

6.     CdTe / CdS thin films will disintegrate, decompose and react with time, forming unstable Cadmium compounds, which behavior is unknown and unpredictable.

7.     These newly formed compounds might outgas with time, thus poisoning the air in the affected areas.

8.     CdTe modules usually are frame-less structures of two pieces of glass, bonded together with a plastic laminate material, which will also disintegrate with time and will allow moisture and gasses to react with the thin films, while at the same time allowing the Cadmium byproducts to outgas to the outside.

9.     Who is going to control the changes in the modules, the potential contamination of, and outgassing in, the environment?

10.  Who is going to be responsible for remediating any problems, arising from damage to the environment or life in the affected areas?

11.  Who is going to recycle the CdTe modules at end of useful life, if the principles and / or their insurers are gone out of business at that time?

12.  This is a big deal – covering thousands of acres US desert land with a new and potentially toxic product.  Why are the principles refusing to discuss the issues openly, and assure us of the safety of this product?  Why the mystery around it?

V.  Arguments:

Argument 1: “…one nickel cadmium flashlight battery has about as much cadmium (7 g)

as a square meter of PV module using current technology “(1)

Answer 1: If we can visit a 6,000 acres field covered with millions of NiCd batteries we’d be able to compare the difference.  Until then, this argument is simply irrelevant.  

Argument 2: The material is bonded and sealed and, even if it were to be released, it would be below hazardous levels (2). 

Answer 2: Agreed.  Small test pieces; no problem.  But imagine 7.3 million CdTe thin film modules containing 132,000 lbs. (60 tons) Cadmium, spread evenly over 6,000 acres (as needed for the proposed 550MW power plant in CA).  Imagine a tornado slamming the modules into the ground and into each other.  Imagine half of the modules’ thin films decomposing after 5-10 years exposure to the desert extremes and outgassing through the cracked and porous encapsulation layers.  Just imagine Cadmium chunks and particles buried into the ground, and Cadmium vapors carried by the wind to where the wind decides to blow.

Argument 3: Using a small amount of cadmium in a sealed PV module provides substantial environmental benefits (2).

Answer 3:  Agreed, small amounts are of no consequence and the benefits might outweigh the damages.  But how about the huge amounts of Cadmium in the large scale power fields?  How about 132,000 lbs. Cadmium spread over one area?  How about 6,000 acres contaminated land to start with and many more coming our way?

Argument 4: CdTe modules are reliable for long term operation.

Answer 4.  Reliability aside, the CdTe modules (like any other thin film and Silicon based) module will lose efficiency with time.  Approx 1% per year  (3).  Or 10% in 10 years and 30% in 30 years.  Or maybe more; there are no tests to verify that, so we can only guess.  So what is this loss of power due to?  Adhesion failure between the layers?  Disintegration and decomposition of the thin films?  Or all of the above.  And what would stop the thin films from outgassing?

Argument 5: Heating experiments to simulate residential fires showed that most (i.e., 99_5%) of the cadmium content of CdTe PV modules was encapsulated in the molten glass matrix. (4). 

Answer 5: Agreed, the small test pieces did not pose much danger.  But how about the results from a massive fire over 6,000 acres packed with CdTe modules?  

NOTE: “Pieces of commercial CdTe photovoltaic (PV) modules, nominally 25x3 (75sm2) cm were used for the tests. (4)”.  6,000 acres is 242,812,380,000.00cm², so how does a small 75cm² test piece, tested with a Bunsen burner on a lab bench answer the question of large scale installation wild fire safety.  Apples and oranges…?

Argument 6: CdTe is a strong and stable semiconductor.  

Answer 6: “It corresponds to the SIMS measurements, which indicate that dopants migrate from the junction to the back contact and accumulate near the back contact.” (6)

Such drastic change in key performance elements is not a sign of a strong and stable  material.  On the contrary; it is a sign of chemically and electronically unstable one, that is looking for a stable chemical and electronic state, thus is prone to chemical reactions. 

Various tests done with CdTe modules clearly show inconsistent efficiency and steady power output degradation, which means that the materials in them are unstable and are undergoing some changing with time.

On the other hand Asbestos is even stronger and more stable material…but look what happened when it was used in such a large scale.  Anything in moderation, they say.  And potentially toxic materials even more so, we say.  

Argument 7.  Cadmium is legal to use in the U.S.

Answer 7: Yes, for now.  EU and China have issued restrictions and banned (5) the use and manufacturing of some Cadmium containing products, which means that there is a problem that we need to look into BEFORE allowing the installation of millions of CdTe modules on thousands acres US land.

Argument 8.  CdTe modules will be recycled at end of life.

Answer 8: Who is going to recycle them if the manufacturer and/or the insurance company are out of business by then?  The future generation, that’s who!  And they are the ones who will cleanup the hazmat fields, UNLESS we make sure that they are safe BEFORE allowing their installation to begin with.

VI.  Conclusions:

There is a serious problem with a major PV technology.  A supposedly “green” technology, which, in our opinion, has the potential of becoming deadly, if not taken care of, tested, proven safe and properly controlled for long term use in large scale operation in the US deserts. 

This is a clear and present danger that has to be brought out in the open, addressed and resolved -- BEFORE we allow mega fields of Cadmium to cover the US deserts. 

The biggest problem thus far has been the fact that CdTe manufacturers and responsible organizations, such as: DOE, NREL, NIH, BNL, EPA, OSHA, CEC, ASES, Union of Concerned Scientists and others are hesitant to get involved in this debate, and prefer to sweep the issues under the rug…until now. 

Sweeping these serious issues under the rug, however, will only postpone the inevitable, making things even worse in the process.  So why not bring them in the open now, and address and resolve the most urgent ones once and forever?  While we still have time.

Time to act is NOW.  Please take a close look at this potential disaster, brewing over US desert lands, and let’s urge the US scientific community and governing bodies into action.  We need to make sure that millions CdTe modules installed on thousands of acres US desert lands will not cause another Asbestos-like environmental debacle and will not convert thousands of pristine desert acres into deadly hazmat fields…and all in the name of “green” energy. 

We must convince the CdTe products manufacturers and the regulators to bring the Cadmium related issues in the open and tell us their side of the story.  We must come to an agreement with them BEFORE they mess up the US deserts and life in general.  It is our responsibility to the environment and people’s health.   

The future generations will hold us responsible for this.

There are solutions that we should discuss with and suggest to the responsible parties (manufacturers, governing bodies, regulators, customers etc.), so we’ll continue looking for ways to raise the issues to the attention of all people who might be interested and / or affected by this potential disaster. 

Please take a close look at the facts herewith and on the Internet, and help us help our selves and the next generations by avoiding another Asbestos-like debacle.

References:

(1)          http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24057.pdf

(2)          http://www.nrel.gov/pv/cdte/citizen.html NREL Concerned Citizen

(3)          http://solar.nmsu.edu/publications/A237.pdf  Mexico tests

(4)          http://www.clca.columbia.edu/papers/Emissions_Encapsulation_Fires.pdf

(5)          http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V2W-4R118J1-2/2/f6f29813299fe5fe50908788144a4604

(6)          http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112098994/abstract

Why is Cadmium being regulated?
 http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-contamination/cadmium-contaminants-removal-water.htm

In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires EPA to determine safe levels of chemicals in drinking water which do or may cause health problems. These non-enforceable levels, based solely on possible health risks and exposure, are called Maximum Contaminant Level Goals.

The MCLG for cadmium has been set at 5 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

NOTE.  MCLG for Cadmium is set at 5ppb, or 0.000 005g/l, or 5 grams per 1,000,000 liters 

This, compared with 8 grams of Cadmium content per each square meter (3 ft2)  in CdTe thin film PV  modules.  You be the judge!

What happens to Cadmium when it is released to the environment?

Some cadmium compounds are able to leach through soils to ground water. When cadmium compounds do bind to the sediments of rivers, they can be more easily bio-accumulated or re-dissolved when sediments are disturbed, such as during flooding. Its tendency to accumulate in aquatic life is great in some species, low in others.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found cadmium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods of time: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, salivation, sensory disturbances, liver injury, convulsions, shock and renal failure.

Long-term: Cadmium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: kidney, liver, bone and blood damage.

HOW CAN CADMIUM AFFECT MY HEALTH? http://www.idph.state.il.us/cancer/factsheets/cadmium.htm

Some workers who breathe air with high levels of cadmium over a short time experience lung damage and even death. Breathing cadmium in air does not usually cause immediate breathing problems or any warning signs. Therefore, exposure may continue until serious lung damage has occurred. Most cadmium levels found in the environment are not high enough to cause lung damage. Breathing lower levels of cadmium over several years can result in a buildup of cadmium in the kidneys and lead to kidney disease. It also can cause bones to become weaker. If you eat food or drink water that contains large amounts of cadmium, stomach irritation, vomiting, and diarrhea may result. Small amounts of cadmium taken in over many years may cause kidney damage and fragile bones.

Female rats and mice fed diets high in cadmium have offspring with low birth weight and improperly formed bones. Low birth weight also has been found in women exposed to cadmium in the workplace. Exposure to cadmium at normal environmental levels is not likely to cause low birth weight infants. Rodents exposed to cadmium in air have higher rates of lung cancer, liver damage, and changes in the immune system. There is no evidence that cadmium causes cancer at the low levels normally found in the environment.

European Cadmium legislation 1 Information brochure

COMPANIES IN COMPLIANCE

Cadmium is dangerous to human health and to the environment. The Council Directive

91/338/EC of 18 June 1991 prohibits the use of cadmium as a pigment, dye or stabilizer in plastics and its use as plating on metallic surfaces. Companies can do much to prevent the manufacture, sale, import and export of products containing cadmium by means of selfregulation.

This fact sheet provides details about the Cadmium Directive and how to observe it.

Chemistry

Cadmium is a soft metal. Chemically it is classed together with zinc and mercury in Group 2B of the Period Table. Cadmium is a by-product of the production of zinc from its ore. Total world production is currently in the order of 20 000 tonnes per year. Cadmium has many uses. For example:

- in plating, to protect metals from corrosion;

- in pigments and dyes as cadmium sulphide (yellow, red and orange);

- as stabiliser in plastics to prevent oxidation and UV-degradation;

- in NiCd batteries.

(The most common uses of cadmium are listed here first)

Effects on health

When cadmium is released into the environment it can be taken up by plants, including crops. The cadmium intake in Europe amounts to around 75 micrograms per week. Most of this is taken in by mouth and accumulates in the kidney. The disease 'itai itai' (Japanese for 'ouch, ouch') is caused by chronic exposure to a relatively high dose of cadmium. In 1968 it was discovered that the cadmium entered the human food chain via rice grown in paddies irrigated using waste water that contained cadmium. Since then much research has been carried out to study the toxicity of cadmium. Cadmium ions can cause kidney damage leading to an enhanced excretion of calcium from bones. The 'softening' of bones that results can lead to serious malformation and hellish pains. Hence 'itai itai'.

Cadmium has no known physiological function in the human body.

Growing awareness

Following the discovery of the causes of 'itai itai' disease awareness of the need to eliminate, or at least reduce, the release of cadmium into the environment grew. This is not a simple task because of the economic importance of the metal itself. However, in the twenty years that followed the discovery of itai itai, alternatives have been found for most cadmium applications. As of 1985-1990, in view of oncoming european legislation for cadmium, the industry has started to replace Cadmium-based pigments by organic pigments and the cadmium-based stabil;izers, used for PVC, by lead or zinc-based stabilizers.

Directive

In 1991 the Council of the European Communities decided that cadmium:

- may not be used to give colour to finished products manufactured from plastics and resins (for a list see table I). When the cadmium content exceeds 0.01% (100 milligrams per kilogram) these products may not be placed on the market;

- may not be used in paints. If the paints have a high zinc content, the residual concentration of cadmium must be as low as possible and at all events must not exceed 0.01%;

- may not be used as stabiliser in products made from PVC or related compounds (for a list see Table

II). In these cases the cadmium concentration in the finished product is also limited to 0.01%;

- may not be used for cadmium plating of metallic products and components to be used in equipment and machinery, furniture and household goods.

European Cadmium legislation 2 Information brochure

Table I

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polyurethane (PUR)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)

Cellulose-acetate (CA)

Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB)

Epoxy resins

Melamine-formaldehyde resins (MF)

Urea-formaldehyde (UF)

Unsaturated polyesters

Polyethylene terephtalate (PET)

Polybutylene terephtalate (PBT)

Polystyrene

Acrylonitrile methylmethacrylate (AMMA)

Cross-linked polyethylene

High-impact polystyrene-polypropylene

Table II

Packaging materials (bags, containers, bottles, lids)

Office or school supplies

Fittings for furniture

Coachwork or the like

Articles of apparel and clothing accessories (including gloves)

Floor and wall coverings

Textile fabrics

Imitation leather

Gramophone records

Tubes and pipes and their fittings

Swing doors

Vehicles for road transport

Coating of steel sheet used in construction or in industry

Insulation for electrical wiring

Exemptions

Exemptions include the use of cadmium pigments and or stabilisers in products where they are required for safety reasons. The prohibition against the use of cadmium plating does not apply to products or components used in aeronautical, aerospace, mining, offshore and nuclear sectors where applications require high safety standards; and for electrical contacts, where cadmium is used to ensure the reliability of the devices in which the contacts are fitted.

Several Member States have been granted derogations from the Cadmium Directive to take into account local circumstances and have applied this in national legislation that deviates. Whereas the Council Directive contains a limited number of products, made of substances and preparations containing cadmium, these Member States have issued a total ban on the use of cadmium in plastics (see Box 1).

Box 1

Derogation of the Cadmium Directive in national legislation

Austria :

The national regulation Cadmiumverordnung BGBI. Nr. 855/1993 restricts the use of cadmium further than prescribed by Council directive 91/338/EEC. It includes a general ban (with exemptions) on cadmium and cadmium compounds for:

- production of dyestuffs, lacquers and paints;

- use of colouring or stabilisation of plastic materials;

- treatment or coating of metal surfaces

Netherlands :

Under the Chemical Substance Act the Cadmium Decree 1999 was issued to replace the

Cadmium Decree 1990. It contains a total ban on the use of cadmium as pigment, dye and/or stabiliser in all plastics and as plating for metal, although there are exemptions for a limited number of essential applications in aerospace and defence. The Cadmium Decree also contains rules for recycling of 'old' products containing cadmium stating that, depending on its useful life, between 90 and 99% of cadmium-containing materials should be recycled. The Minister for the Environment can grant an exemption for safety applications. A fact sheet in English is available from the Ministry of the Environment.

Sweden :

The Swedish ban on cadmium covers the use of cadmium compounds as pigments, stabilisers and for surface treatment (plating). Because the Swedish regulations do not specify the types of plastics in which cadmium pigments or stabilisers can be used, the ban also covers other plastics. Some general exemptions have been granted for certain goods and commodities.

These include some minor deviations from the Council Directive. Further information is available on <www.kemi.se>).

Enforcement

Enforcement of the Cadmium Directive is one of the priorities for the Chemical Legislation European Enforcement Network (CLEEN) under the joint presidency of Greece and the Netherlands . In recent years inspections have been carried out to ensure compliance among manufacturers and firms that import products from outside the European Union. These inspections have shown that 15 - 20% of the samples tested still contain too much cadmium in the form of either pigments or stabilisers. The main source of these cadmium-containing products is the Far East, particularly the Peoples Republic of China . Approximately 80% of the products made from PVC containing an excessive cadmium content originates from this country.

To prevent the import of prohibited goods CLEEN is co-ordinating efforts of the Member States to improve inspection methods and procedures as part of the EuroCad Network (see Box 2 ). The Network aims to establish closer co-operation between customs and environmental inspectors both within and between Member States. On the European level co-operation will be encouraged between the directorates-general involved, DG III (Industry), DG XI (Environment) and DG XXI (Customs).

Box 2 .

CLEEN

In 1995/96 several Member States worked together in a project known as NONS (Notification of New Substances) which aimed to improve enforcement of Council Directive 92/32/EEC. This directive requires companies to inform authorities on the release of new substances. At the conclusion of the NONS project, CLEEN, the Chemical Legislation European Enforcement Network, was established in May 1999 in Dresden . CLEEN aims to enforce European legislation on substances and products by setting priorities and initiating international projects.

EuroCad, set up to help to enforce cadmium legislation, is the first of these projects. It began work in September 1999 and concentrates on four areas for international co-operation: selfregulation;

co-operation with customs; development of inspection methods; and desk studies on the use of cadmium. Another project aims at enforcement of CFC (chlorofluorcarbonate) legislation.

Compliance

Companies must obviously comply with relevant national cadmium regulations based on the Council

Directive. They can also work voluntarily to restrict cadmium use and to prevent the manufacturing and import of products containing unacceptably high levels of cadmium either through their environmental management system or through supply chain management.

Environmental management systems ( EMS ) are becoming more and more common among manufacturers. An EMS consists of a series of related measures concerning company policy, organisation and administration. These measures are meant to provide an insight into the effects of plant processes on the environment, to control these effects and, where possible, to diminish them. An EMS can be certified by an independent certification authority providing certain standards are achieved. In 1996 the International Standard Organisation published the ISO 14000-series as a standard for EMS . The Council of Ministers in 1993 published the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), a voluntary scheme for companies that have a certified EMS . Inspections of raw materials or components that are purchased, including a check on the cadmium content should be part of an EMS , including a check on cadmium-content.

Responsible Care. The chemical industry itself has taken the initiative in establishing a systematic approach to improve standards in safety, health and environment with their Responsible Care programme. This encourages opening up communication links with authorities as well as with other stakeholders, including people living near chemical plants, environmental organisations and suppliers and purchasers. A fairly recent element added to the Responsible Care programme is the concept of 'product stewardship', whereby a company takes responsibility for its products after they have left the factor from distribution through to (re-)use and finally removal, or waste management. Product stewardship is motivated, on the one hand, by a genuine concern for health and safety, and on the other, by the need to reduce liability. In general product stewardship can be used to prevent the manufacturing of products containing excessive levels of cadmium.

Contracts. Trading companies generally do not have environmental management or comparable systems, in spite of the fact that the import of substances and products is an important source of cadmium in the European Union. To stop, or at least reduce, this flow companies could include a special clause in the contract with their supplier requiring the supplier to provide documentation to prove that the substances or products do not contain excessive levels of cadmium. For an example see annex 1.

These documents should preferably contain the results of the tests carried out according to an accepted procedure (see Box 3 ) and by qualified laboratories. In other cases where the imports involve small amounts and importers are not dealing with a regular supplier, companies could request a 'Non-Cadmium Declaration' , as shown in the example in annex 2. However, this type of declaration does not protect the purchaser against prosecution if it the product is subsequently discovered to contain an excessive concentration of cadmium. However, it can be of use by making it possible to claim damages from the supplier.

Box 3

Test procedure

A European Pre-standard procedure (ENV 1122) has been developed in order to meet the European standards for total cadmium content in plastic components, paints and pigments Where paints and varnishes are required to be tested for cadmium content an alternative test method as laid down in ISO 385614 may be used. The European Pre-standard procedure is based on the atomisation of a solution in the flame of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer and measurement of its absorption at a wavelength of 228.8 nm.

ANNEX 1

Example of a contract

REGULATORY APPROVALS

a) All products must comply with any and all European Union and national legislation, regulations, directives, administrative requirements or practices and any other requirements which may from time to time be in force, relating to the supply, offer for sale, sale and safety of the products, for all countries in which they are offered for sale.

b) The supplier has to provide all documentation required by <company name> or any European Union of national or local governmental authority or agency necessary to prove and demonstrate compliance with the requirements of paragraph a) above of products supplied to the Purchase order. Where European Union or national certification is available to prove or demonstrate compliance with any such requirements, the supplier shall supply only products so certified.

c) Without prejudice to the provisions of b) above, where products may bear, or are required by law so to bear, certification under the 'CE' mark of conformity, the Supplier shall supply only products so certified. The supplier shall provide to <company name> or any European Union or national or local governmental authority or agency any and all documentation necessary to prove or otherwise demonstrate conformity with said mark.

d) The Supplier has to ensure that all tests necessary to obtain certification under b) or c) above have been carried out in accordance with any and all applicable legislation, requirements, rules or regulations, and that any and all such tests are conducted by a test house approved by the European Union, as may from time tot time appear in the Official Journal of the European Union.

e) All product claims shall at all times be true and accurate. The supplier shall, upon the request of <company name>, and as may otherwise be required by any national or local government authority or agency, immediately provide any and all documentation necessary to prove or otherwise substantiate any and all product claims.

f) In the event that the supplier supplies products which do not conform with the provisions of a), b), c), d) or e) above, these products may be returned to the Supplier or the country of origin (if different) at the Supplier's expense. The price of such non-conforming products may, with agreement from the Supplier, be deducted by <company name> from sums otherwise payable to the Supplier in relation to other products or batches of products, save that if the price payable has already been paid, <company name> may require immediate reimbursement of the sum, such reimbursement in no circumstances to take place later than 10 days following a request by <company name>.

g) Test procedure for total cadmium content in plastics

i. In order to meet the European and national standards for total Cadmium content in plastics <company name> has specified the European Pre-standard ENV 1122 procedure for testing of all of its individual plastic components.

ii. The test procedure applies to all individual plastic components, paints and pigments used in the manufacture of products intended for supply by supplier to <company name>.

iii. The level of Cadmium found in any individual component shall not exceed 100 mg/kg when tested by the method prescribed.

iv. If test method B is used the watch glass should be replaced during all the heating processes so as to prevent any loss of cadmium during the test.

v. Where paints and varnishes require testing for Cadmium content an alternative test method as laid down in International Standard ISO 385614 may be used.

vi. Producers should also be aware that it is planned to introduce a new European commission directive under the dangerous substances Directive 76/769/EEC which will restrict the use of tin and cadmium in a range of plastics and paints.

vii. It is a requirement that all items which require Cadmium certification (as indicated on the purchase order) shall be inspected and certified per production batch. A copy of such certification is to be sent to: <company name>

NB. No product which requires Cadmium certification may be shipped to Europe without Cadmium certification approval. The company lot code should be attached by the Supplier to this certificate for identification purposes.

European Cadmium legislation 8 Information brochure

ANNEX 2

Non-Cadmium Declaration

Date pm

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What is the "Unified Smart Grid"?

The Unified Smart Grid is the name used for the future transmission power lines that would carry green electricity from the many solar power plants and solar power parks and wind farms that generate the power, typically in remote areas, to the "load centers" or major cities that would use the green power. 

Quite simply, our country's out-dated and inefficient National Electric Grid, lacks the ability to carry all the new green electricity being planned from hundreds of new solar power parks and wind power generation facilities.

The Unified Smart Grid will be a national interconnected network relying on a high capacity backbone of electric power transmission lines linking all the nation's local electrical networks that have been upgraded to smart grids. Europe's analogous project is sometimes referred to as the SuperSmart Grid, a term that also appears in the literature describing the Unified Smart Grid. 

Cost estimates to rebuild the nation's electric grid as a Unified Smart Grid have ranged from $350 billion to $450 billion.

Support for the unified smart grid came with passage of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.   Title 13 of this Act invested $100 million in funding for the years 2008 – 2012 and establishes a matching program to states, utilities and consumers to build unified smart grid capabilities.  It also creates a Grid Modernization Commission to assess the benefits of demand response and automated demand response and recommended a set of system protocols and standards to be led by the National Institute of Standards and Technology which would coordinate the development of smart grid standards.  FERC would then promulgate these standards and protocols for the unified smart grid through its official rulemaking capabilities.

The Unified Smart Grid received further support with the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 that set aside $11 billion for the creation of a smart grid.

Building a Unified Smart Grid would help jump-start the renewable energy investments in solar power parks.  Thousands of megawatts of new solar power parks (both Concentrating Solar Power plants and Photovoltaic Power Plants) are being planned. Most are  located in the desert Southwest due to the solar energy resource. A Unified Smart Grid is needed to move the large amount of power, which is fairly concentrated, to the rest of the nation.  Without the new Unified Smart Grid, it would be impossible to distribute the green power to the nation. 

The new Unified Smart Grid is significantly more efficient than the present, nearly 100 year old technology that makes up our nation's present transmission and distribution network of how we get the power from central power plants to customers and major load centers.

Much of the new Unified Smart Grid will be comprised of "High Voltage Direct Current" transmission lines which is significantly more efficient than the present high voltage alternating current transmission lines.  

The new Unified Smart Grid will provide economic development, thousands of new jobs, and significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

What would the new Unified Smart Grid look like?

Source:  American Electric Power

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For more information on the Unified Smart Grid, visit one of the following sites:

Central Power Plant
www.CentralPowerPlant.com

Electric Power Generation
www.ElectricPowerGeneration.net

High Voltage Direct Current
www.HighVoltageDirectCurrent.com

National Electric Grid
www.NationalElectricGrid.com

Transmission and Distribution
www.TransmissionAndDistribution.net

Unified Smart Grid
www.UnifiedSmartGrid.com

Wind Power Generation
www.WindPowerGeneration.com

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You Can't Have a Unified Smart Grid Without:

Advanced Metering System  *  Advanced Meters  *  Automated Demand Response  *  Automated Energy Management

Battery Energy Storage  *  Building Automation Systems  *  Carbon Free Energy  *  Clean Power Generation  *  Cogeneration 

Compressed Air Energy Storage  *  Decentralized Energy  *  Demand Side Management  *  Dispersed Generation 

Distributed Energy Resources  *  Distributed Generation  *  Distributed PV  *  EcoGeneration  *  High Voltage Direct Current 

Load Leveling  *  Locational Marginal Pricing  *  Micro-Grid  *  Net Zero Energy  *  Net Zero Energy Buildings 

Nodal Pricing  *  Onsite Power Generation  *  Pollution Free Power  *  Plug In Electric Vehicles  *  Renewable Energy Parks 

Rooftop PV  *  Solar Cogeneration  *  Solar Power Parks  *  Trigeneration  *  Virtual Power Plants  *  Waste Heat Recovery

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What is Engineering Procurement Construction?

Engineering Procurement Construction, also referred to as; Engineer Procure Construct, "EPC" or Engineering Procurement and Construction, is the terminology used when an owner, for example, is seeking to build a new cogeneration power plant uses when the owner is seeking a "turnkey" project solution.  EPC contracts are not only a very common form of contracting within the construction industry,  but increasingly becoming the norm, particularly in the electric power generation (power plants) and utility sector. 

The construction company, via the EPC contract with the owner, provides for the design, engineering, procurement of all related supplies, components, materials, labor, services, etc.  The contractor, with approval/permit by EPC contract with the owner, may sub-contract part of the work. 

What is Front End Engineering Design?

Front-end Engineering Design, also known as Front End Engineering  or "FEED," is the preliminary engineering and conceptual design completed in advance of the start of EPC (Engineering, Procurement and Construction).  Front End Engineering usually concludes with the engineering firm's presentation of an Engineering Feasibility Study or Analysis.

Front-end Engineering Design includes a design team that includes and integrates all or most engineering fields such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, environmental engineering, civil engineering, power engineering, chemical engineering, etc.  The FEED design team includes the project visualization and conceptualization stages, including "what-if" decision making analyses, integrating the client company's goals, objectives into an efficient and economic engineering solution. 

What is Balance of Plant?

Balance of plant or "BOP," consists of the remaining systems, components, and structures that comprise a complete power plant or energy system - not included in the prime mover and waste heat recovery (ex. gas turbines, steam turbines, heat recovery steam generators (HRSG), waste heat boilers, etc.) systems.  In solar power parks, BOP is referred to as BOS or balance of system.

Engineering, Procurement and Construction 
(EPC) Contracts 
and Performance Guarantees

Engineering Procurement and Construction or "EPC" contracts with long-term performance guarantees are becoming increasingly popular for some renewable energy technologies, such as commercial-scale photovoltaic systems.

Engineering Procurement and Construction contracts give the owner unprecedented assurance that the system will provide the long-term energy benefits advertised without wasting time and money with the Architectural and Engineering ("A&E") firm or expensive change orders that take additional time and resources to process and integrate. These performance guarantees cover the entire installation and go way beyond manufacturer warranties that only cover specific parts and not the system as a whole.

EPC and performance guarantee contracts can be a wise choice for many reasons. Oftentimes, the Architectural and Engineering firms do not have the in-house expertise to understand fully how to specify renewable energy systems. Due to the newer nature of these technologies and the rapidly developing nature of many technologies, this is a specialized field of its own for each renewable technology type.  If the Architectural and Engineering company specifies particular equipment, while it may be feasible, it may not be the optimal design or the most likely to be available at construction.

EPC contracts also provide more flexibility in equipment choices that can reduce change orders and construction delays. For example, many photovoltaic modules change specifications and dimensions on almost a monthly basis. Even the oldest and most reputable manufacturers are working to keep pace with fierce competition in the field today. Given that the modules are the heart of the photovoltaic system, it reasons that specifying a particular module in the construction documents might result in a change order and result in cost over runs and delays by actual construction.

Contractor Benefits

In an EPC contract with a performance guarantee, the contractor has a strong financial incentive to use the most reliable and highest performing equipment and to ensure the highest standards are maintained throughout installation and that any details that could influence long-term performance are addressed. Practices ranging from cherry picking the highest output modules to over-sizing wiring and conduit to improved operations and maintenance (O&M) plans might not be necessary for inspection or commissioning but can contribute to meeting the contractor's long-term performance liability. These same practices in turn enhance the long-term energy performance to the greater benefit of the facility and those that operate it.

Performance guarantee contracts attract top renewable energy contractors with long-term success in their fields. Less capable or experienced contractors will not savor the extra liability involved, nor will they have the expertise or even access to the top quality equipment necessary to fulfill a performance guarantee.

Contract Provisions

Certain provisions should be included with any EPC contract to ensure coordination and consistency with the remainder of the project. All contracts and subcontracts related to the project should include provisions requiring participation in the integrated design process including coordination of design with other related aspects of the project.

The EPC contractor needs to work with the Architectural and Engineering firm to understand the building elements that are necessary to the integration of the renewable energy system. In addition, an EPC contract needs provisions to ensure coordination with the larger project construction team. While coordination is important, this type of design and construction contract allows the contractors to do what they do best and frees more of the agency's critical planning resources for other aspects of the project.

Additional provisions standard with other construction contract terms should also be included in the EPC contract. These include requiring the team to perform enhanced commissioning over the first year and developing an O&M manual and training for the system.

Through a combination of EPC contracts combined with long-term performance guarantees, the construction relationship is transformed from being sometimes adversarial to being a win/win situation for everyone involved.

Engineering Procurement Construction and 
Front End Engineering Design (FEED) and 
Project Development Services

What are "renewable energy resources?"

"Renewable energy resources" include; 

• Biomethane  

• B100 Biodiesel

• E100 Ethanol

• Hydrogen Fuel

• Solar Power & Energy (for homes and businesses)

• Synthesis Gas

• Utility Scale Solar Power Plants

• Wind Power Generation

What is "carbon free energy?"

"Carbon free energy" is energy that is produced or generated without producing any carbon dioxide emissions.  Even nuclear power plants generate "carbon free energy" along with the following;

• Anaerobic Digesters

• Biogas Plants

• Biodiesel Refineries

• Biomass Gasification

• Clean Coal Technologies (with Carbon Capture and Sequestration)

• Coal Fired Power Plants (with Carbon Capture and Sequestration)

• Concentrating Photovoltaic

• Concentrating Solar Power

• Decentralized Energy

• Dispersed Generation

• Distributed Generation

• Distributed PV

• EcoGeneration

• Evacuated Tube Collectors

• Fast Breeder Reactor

• High Concentration Photovoltaic

• High Voltage Direct Curent

• Hydrogen Fuel Cells

• Integral Fast Reactor

• Light Water Reactor

• Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor

• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

• Molten Salt Reactor

• Net Zero Energy

• Net Zero Energy Buildings

• Nuclear Power Plants

• Pebble Bed Modular Reactor

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

• Plasma Gasification

• Renewable Energy Technologies
  Solar Absorption Cooling

• Solar Cogeneration  

• Solar Desalination (Clean Water and Clean Power!)

• Solar Electric Power Systems

• Solar Energy Systems

• Solar Heating And Cooling

• Solar Power And Energy

• Solar Thermal Collectors

• Solar Trigeneration

• Thin Film Photovoltaics

• Trigeneration

• Waste To Energy 

• Waste to Fuel 

Energy Efficiency Measures and Energy Conservation Measures such as Automated Demand Response and Demand Side Management and Energy Efficient Lighting, while not "generating" carbon free energy, provides significant increases in efficiencies, thereby reducing the overall need for energy, which may come from central power plants that are very inefficient and generate significant amounts of carbon dioxide emissions.

Even nuclear power plants generate "carbon free energy."   These are just some examples of carbon-free renewable energy. The purpose of all these methods is to combat the increase in greenhouse gas emissions and reduce our impact on the environment as a whole.

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How we make and distribute electricity is changing! 

The electric power generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric "grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the 19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very expensive and “dumb.”  

The "old" way of generating and distributing energy resembles this slide:

We simply do NOT have the luxury of time on our hands.  We need to end our dependence and reliance on foreign fossil fuels, especially from countries that don't like us! We need to rapidly begin expanding renewable energy resources and renewable energy technologies from our vast and abundant renewable energy resources, such as; solar, solar energy systems, solar cogeneration, solar trigeneration, "solar on every roof," along with; Biomass Gasification, B100 Biodiesel, Biomethane, E100 Ethanol (from cellulosic, agricultural waste, sugar cane, etc., and NOT from corn), Geothermal Power Plants, Natural Wastewater Treatment, Synthesis Gas, Waste To Energy, Waste To Fuel and Wind Power Generation where it makes economic and environmental sense."

For more information, call or email:

American Energy Plan
www.AmericanEnergyPlan.com

Wind Power Generation
www.WindPowerGeneration.com

Zero Emission Energy
www.ZeroEmissionEnergy.com

Zero Emission Power
www.ZeroEmissionPower.com

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We support the Renewable Energy Institute by donating a portion of our profits to the Renewable Energy Institute in their efforts to reduce fossil fuel use through renewable energy and their goals to end fossil fuel pollution by reducing/eliminating Carbon Emissions, Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Greenhouse Gas Emissions.

The Renewable Energy Institute is "Changing The Way The World Makes and Uses Energy by Providing Research & Development, Funding and Resources That Creates Sustainable Energy via 'Carbon Free Energy,' 'Clean Power Generation' and 'Pollution Free Power' Through Expanding the use of Renewable Energy Technologies."

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